This article examines how the #CEO evaluates the financial return generated by spending on marketing, and how that judgement shapes the resources marketing teams receive. For a long time, marketing was treated as a soft cost that was hard to defend in the language of finance. Today the chief executive is expected to read marketing the way a banker reads an asset, asking what each dollar of #marketing_investment returns in profit, cash flow, and firm value. The article builds

This article examines the #International_Law_Commission's (ILC) framework for #state_responsibility as codified in the Articles on the Responsibility of States for #Internationally_Wrongful_Acts (ARSIWA), adopted in 2001 and closely associated with the scholarship of #James_Crawford (2002). The central question is: when does #international_law hold a #sovereign_state legally accountable for the acts or omissions of its organs, agents, and affiliated non-state entities, and wh

Abstract Charismatic leadership theory tries to answer a puzzle that most students notice early in life: why do some people inspire deep loyalty, energy, and sacrifice while others with the same job title struggle to get anyone to follow them? This article explains the theory in plain language and then places it inside a wider social science conversation. It begins with the classic foundations laid by Max Weber and developed by later researchers such as Robert House, Jay Cong